Target Audience Theories - Levi Strauss’ Theory

Claude Levi-Strauss was a French anthropologist who lived in the early 1900's. He believed that the way we understand certain words depends not so much on any meaning they themselves directly contain, but much more by our understanding of the difference between the word and its 'opposite' or, as he called it 'binary opposites'.

Binary Opposition refers to a pair of related terms or concepts that are opposite in meaning.

In relation to the production of music videos, binary opposition can found everywhere.

BINARY OPPOSITION IN CAMERAWORK:

EG. of a birds eye view shot 

• Low angle shot - High angle shot
• Worms eye view - Birds eye view
• Close up shot- Long shot
• Shallow focus - Deep focus
• Zoom in - Zoom out

BINARY OPPOSITION IN EDITING:

• Short take - Long take
• Slow cutting rate - Fast cutting rate 
• Slow motion - Fast forward 
• Fade in - Fade out 
• Flashback - Flash forward

BINARY OPPOSITION IN MISE-EN-SCENE:

• High key lighting - Low key lighting
• Light - Dark
• Urban - Rural
• Fat - Thin 
• Masculinity - Femininity 

BINARY OPPOSITION IN SOUND:

• Low pitch - High pitch 
• Slow tempo - Fast tempo
• Diegetic - Now diegetic
• Soft - Hard
• Quiet - Loud 

COMMON BINARY OPPOSITION THEMES FOUND IN MUSIC PRODUCTS:

LOVE - HATE 

Blank Space by Taylor Swift 

This music video describes the roller coaster emotions felt when in love and after a breakup. 

GEEK - JOCK/ POPULARITY - UNPOPULARITY 

Last Friday Night by Katy Perry

This music video contrasts the stereotypical American Jock vs the unpopularity of a geek. 

OBEDIENCE - REBELLION

So What by P!nk

This music video juxtaposes the rebellious attitude of the artist against what is normally expected. 

APPLICATION TO MY PRODUCT:

The theory of binary opposition will definately have a role when it comes to replicating my chosen song, Stay High (Habits) by Tove Lo. Whether it is using lighting to contrast particular moods and atmospheres in scenes to selecting different coloured filters to add effect on the digipak or using adjacent shots to compare expressed emotions- Binary Opposition is a powerful tool. 

Target Audience Theories - Horton and Wohl’s Theory

The theory of "Parasocial Interactions" relates to the music industry when describing relationships between artists and their target audiences.

In order for viewers to accept the parasocial relationship, the celebrity or performer must build his or her performance and interactions response to that performer. The celebrity needs to relate to the viewer so that the parasocial relationship compliments normal, everyday social life. Most characteristic is the attempt of the persona to duplicate the gestures and conversational style of an informal face-to-face gathering. Horton and Wohl argue that the best practice is for celebrities to make their private lives somewhat public as they interest the viewer, but the image portrayed should be carefully chosen and monitored just as their public and performing life should be. The fascination with celebrity private lives could be based on a variety of factors. The viewer or audience member may relate to the performer, live vicariously through performers, and idolize them and their success stories. They may simply be interested because it makes the parasocial relationship that much stronger when the viewer feels as if they know the celebrity on a much more personal level.

EXAMPLES OF PARASOCIAL INTERACTIONS:

Modes of direct address with the audience:

• Live performances.
• Social media websites- Facebook, Twitter, Instagram pages.
• Autograph signing events.
• Eye contact in close ups on album covers/in music videos.
• Starring audience members within official music videos.

The inclusion of real audience members starring in Ed Sheeran's hit single- Lego House.

Adopting a name for a particular section of the audience: 

• Justin Bieber's "Beliebers".
• Lady Gaga's "Little Monsters".
• One Direction's "Directioners".

Justin Bieber personally thanking his fans or "Beliebers" for support.

Appearances on TV Shows/ films:

• TALENT SHOWS- Nicki Minaj judging on American Idol, Nicole Scherzinger on the X-Factor and the entire panel on The Voice- Jessie J, Tom Jones, Will.I.Am and Danny O'Donoghue.
• REALITY TV SHOWS-50 Cent appearing on MTV's Cribs.
• DOCUMENTARIES-N-Dubz group featuring in Being...N-Dubz.
• REALITY BASED FILMS- Eminem in 8 Mile and Notorious B.I.G. in Notorious.

The judging panel on UK singing talent show- The Voice

APPLICATION TO MY PRODUCT:

Applying Horton and Wohl's 'Parasocial Interaction' theory, I believe I could develop a parasocial relationship with my selected target audience. Although it would be unrealistic to feature my artist on television or in a film, I could easily develop modes of direct address and adopt a name for the audience to make a similar connection. Social media pages are easy to create and I can do so to communicate quickly and efficiently to the target audience. As part of this process, social media pages would allow my group to mould and create an artist and a music video around what our particular audience desires. This would give the audience a special connection to the artist as they will feel they have helped to create and promote this star. Making the artist look into the camera when creating digipak images and the video advert as well as including fans in the video would brandish the same result. 

Target Audience Theories - Richard Dyer’s Theory

Richard Dyer's music video theory is as follows:

"A star is an image constructed from a range of materials"

This "range of materials" can be defined as any of these:

• The songs and their lyrical themes
• The album covers and how they represent the artist
• Media coverage ranging from interviews to tabloid gossip
• Live performances and the image shown on stage
• The music videos

A star's image is not how an artist actually looks, believes and behaves but instead a fictitious star perceived by the audience and the characteristics that represent them. Music promotion (eg: Music videos, music magazine adverts, album covers etc.) often contribute to the largest proportion of a star's images. Within these media texts, an artist can establish their own iconography such as costumes, hair and makeup styles and settings. These are what will essentially define them. Here are some examples:

Nicki Minaj and the colour pink:

Slipknot and their masks:

Lady Gaga and her crazy blonde hair:

Katy Perry and her association with confectionery due to her hit single, California Girls:

Miley Cyrus and her on-stage twerking: 

Obviously iconography can and will vary artist to artist depending on their opinions, influences, power, target audience and genre. Stars will often represent shared cultural values and attitudes and will promote certain ideology. Audience interest in these values enhances their 'star quality', and it is through conveying beliefs, ideas and opinions outside music that performers help create their star persona.

APPLICATION TO MY PRODUCT:
I will be creating a solo female artist. She will be part of the pop genre but will also appeal to audiences associated with dirty pop, hip-hop and dance. This means that she will share the values and beliefs that artists across those genres do but also perform and appear similarly too. In my music video, the artist will have a distinct appearance to stand out from the other artists in the genres. However, conventions used in pop, hip hop and dance music videos will be used, developed and challenged in my own.

Target Audience Theories - Steve Archer’s Theory

STEVE ARCHER'S MUSIC VIDEO THEORY (2004):

"Often, music videos will cut between a narrative and a performance of the song by the artist. Additionally, a carefully choreographed dance might be a part of the artist's performance or an extra aspect of the video designed to aid visualisation and the 'repeatability' factor. Sometimes, the artist (especially the singer) will be part of the story, acting as narrator and participant at the same time. But it is the lip-sync close-up and the miming of playing instruments that remains at the heart of video, as if to assure us that the artist really can play the music".

PERFORMANCE:

Performance based music videos often contain shots of the artist performing, dancing or singing (or all three) in a scene that is not included within the narrative.  A common convention is that the performance scenes take place after the narrative ones showing the artist reflecting back upon/remembering a certain event or memory. Performances (especially in the pop genre) can usually be seen in a studio with an artificial background where there is space for large instruments such as drums and other performers such as background dancers. In some cases, performance scenes have been taken from real, live events such as a gig or festival. This part of the music video almost always includes miming and lip-syncing.

EXAMPLE: Slipknot- Duality

This is a good example of a performance based video. Often bands in the rock/punk/metal genre only produce performance based videos because the audience are less interested in following a story. In addition to this, most audience members thrive in the heat-of-the-moment atmosphere at a gig or event. Getting fans involved can be a powerful way to energise and give meaning to a performance.

NARRATIVE:

Narrative based music videos will often contain a long sequence of shots which follows a story or event. Characters in this story may be played by the artist/band who perform the song or may even play a version of themselves. A narrative based music video will not contain any lip syncing but the lyrics may reflect on what is being seen during this. [Please click here for the Andrew Goodwin post demonstrating different types of narratives] These types of videos may be edited to look like a mini film often containing a beginning, middle and end, some even having opening titles and credits. A clear genre can be obtained from the narrative due to the careful selection of mise-en-scene and the use of editing. Intertextuality, binary opposition and other film theories may be present in narrative based videos.

EXAMPLE: Aha- Take On Me

This is a good example of a narrative based video. Despite there being a small portion of performance, the music video mainly follows a very vivid and visual storyline. It is easy to grasp that the concept of the video is a love story where two people fall for each other. Not only is this entertaining to watch, but is also relatable to the target audience.

HYBRIDS:

Performance-Narrative hybrids are by far the most common type of music video. But why? The performance side of the music video will promote the artist/band, the song and the genre of a song. The narrative side of the music video will promote the deeper meaning of the song, the views and opinions of the artist/band as well as providing entertainment to the audience. Often artists will want to not only promote themselves and their product (the song), but also offer an idea or concept to the audience to interpret hence the popularity of this type of music video.

EXAMPLE: Carly Rae Jepson- Call Me Maybe

This is a good example of a hybrid performance and narrative music video. At the same time as lip syncing and performing the song, the artist tells a story at the same time.

APPLICATION TO MY PRODUCT:

I will be creating a hybrid music video using Steve Archers theory to help me use, develop and challenge the conventions seen in performance and narrative based music videos. As our artist is small artist within the 'dirty pop' genre, I want to promote her as an artist but also give the audience a visual story to follow. I like the rebellious/anarchist character I have created for her in our song and I think this will reflect her personality as an artist well. 

Target Audience Theories - Andrew Goodwin’s Theory

According to Andrew Goodwins 1992 music video theory, there are four types of narrative in a music video:

1. Illustrative

This type of music video narrative portrays a story in combination with the lyrics that can be visually seen. 

For example, in the video "Fit But You Know It" by The Streets, we can see a man queuing to get some chips and a drink. This is at the same time as the lyrics announce this action. 

2. Amplification

This type of music video narrative often portrays parts of a song metaphorically in conjunction with the lyrics and the repetition of illustrative video during the chorus. This is the most common music video narrative. 

For example, Firework by Katy Perry (below) metaphorically and visually describes how particular minorites in society break the status quo and express who they are. During the chorus however, we see the artist singing the most important lyrics. 

3. Contradiction

This type of music video narrative is where the images and visuals seen in the video contrasts the lyrics and meaning of the song at that moment for effect.

4. Disjunction

This type of music video narrative is where the meaning of the song is completely ignored and not reference within the video.

APPLICATION TO MY PRODUCT:

For my music video, I will definitely be using the Illustrative and Amplification music video narratives. I will use illustrative visuals to particular emphasise certain lyrics of the song and amplification to create metaphorical meaning to song through mise-en-scene.

Target Audience Theories - Sigmund Freud and Laura Mulvey's Theories

Sigmund Freud's theory of Exhibitionism is the idea that the more powerful independent female artists of recent years have added to the complexity of the politics of looking at gender/cultural debates, by being sexually provocative and apparently in control of, and inviting, a sexualised gaze. This is a subverted version of 'voyeurism' which is often without the subject knowing or inviting a sexualised watch upon them.
Laura Mulvey's 'Male Gaze' theory also incorporates the same conventions of exhibitionism and voyeurism- the only difference is that the artist is actively encouraging the audience to feel this way and is aware of it happening. In fact, music videos can be made around this theory knowing that it will be particularly popular with the male gender in the audience.

Some good examples of this include:


Baby One More Time- Britney Spears (1998)
Said to be pioneer for introducing the idea of a powerful but more importantly sexualised solo female artist, Britney Spears exhibits herself with the song Baby One More Time. Re-inventing the look of schoolgirl, she struts down the corridors and dances erotically. Spears' videos continued like this and voyeurism can be seen further encouraged in later videos such as "Toxic".


Anaconda- Nicki Minaj (2014)
This music video has been ridiculed in the media, especially on the internet, for its explicit use of exhibitionism provoking the audience to gaze upon the artist's breasts, body and buttocks. The use of phallic imagery, seductive dance moves and lack of clothing leave nothing to the imagination. Not only this, there is an actual lap-dance scene at the end of the video where a male hip-hop artist, Drake, is enjoying the company of his seducer. This brings in the idea of voyeurism as we (the audience) intrude on this rather intimate moment between two lovers. This artist has been known to exhibit her body before but not in this fashion.

APPLICATION TO MY PRODUCT:
There is more of a sense of voyeurism that exhibitionism in my chosen song Habits (Stay High) by Tove Lo. This character is in a very vulnerable state in the narrative as she has lost somebody very close to her (either in a relationship or by death) and feels that the only way to deal with this is by partying and taking drugs to cope. The camera in most of the video acts as a mirror which the character uses especially when applying makeup or getting dressed. It is unclear whether the character is aware of this until she finishes using the mirror and raises her eyebrows at us. This particular mode of direct address suggests that she knows people are watching her and judging her. This action is almost a form of understanding/accepting this and saying "So what?"
The voyeurism aspect of the video is stressed even further during the clubbing scenes. Here we see the character making love to both male and female counterparts in extreme close ups, which is rather uncomfortable to watch.
When replicating this song with our own treatment, I think it would be good to incorporate aspects of exhibitionism and voyeurism in. We should be careful when applying this target audience theory depending what kind of artist we create for the song. For example, if we wanted to create an indie-pop genre of artist we wouldn't want her being shown off in expensive outfits or skimping around in lingerie as it would be inappropriate for that genre.

PLEASE CLICK HERE TO BE LINKED TO THE OFFICIAL VIDEO

Target Audience Theories - John Stewart's Theory

"Incorporating, raiding and reconstructing" is essentially the essence of intertextuality, using something with which the audience may be familiar to generate both potentially nostalgic associations and new meanings. It is perhaps more explicitly evident in the music video than in any other media form, with the possible exception of advertising.
In other words, Intertexuality is where media texts (such as music videos) reference other media texts, especially films, video games, fashion and photography. This is John Stewart's idea that music videos in particular uses many conventions seen in other media texts to generate a new interest in something that already exists. It can also be where a media text has taken an older one and re-invented it. This is a good way to create more interest around the product as the audience will recognise the reference and can relate to it. It may also link two different audiences together creating one larger one.

There are several examples of Intertextuality in the music industry today. Here are a few:

Beats merch in 'BR' by Lady Gaga

Lady Gaga and Nicki Minaj- Beats
Lady Gaga and Nicki Minaj have Dr. Dre's Beats product line of electronics featuring in their videos as they have partnerships with him. He also frequently features in some of their songs and subsequently his product line has a firm place in more than one artist audience.



Madonna- Gentlemen Prefer Blondes

Madonna's Material girl.

Madonna's Material Girl video plays on a reference from the film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes and the character Marilyn Monroe plays. There is an archetype of famous and successful Blondes who are very materialistic and will use their attractiveness to attain what they desire. In this case, the song in the film is named "Diamonds are a Girl's Best Friend".


Eminem- Robin from DC's Batman comics

Eminem as "Rap Boy"

Eminem and dancers in the song "Without Me" dress up as various superheroes from the DC universe of comics and films. The whole video is stylised as if it was a comic with features from comics such as black boxes, vibrant colours and large speech bubbles/action boxes.

APPLICATION TO MY PRODUCT:
The only Intertexuality in my chosen song, Habits (Stay High) by Tove Lo is the line which says "Binge on all my Twinkies". Despite being a Swedish singer/songwriter, Twinkies are an Amercian brand of sponge cake, about the size of a small chocolate bar. It isn't a particularly healthy snack and emphasises the characters bad habits/unhealthy lifestyle. Nevertheless, by placing this reference in her song, she automatically appeals or at least makes a nod to her American audience. This will be taken into account when replicating the video for myself.